Input/Output

Input/Output

Absolute advantage:

• Individual: exists when a person can produce more of a certain good/service than someone else in the same amount of time
• National: exists when a country can produce more of a good/service than another country can in the same time period

Comparative advantage:

• Individual/national: exists when an individual or nation can produce a good/service at a lower opportunity cost than can another individual or nation

Input problems

• the country/individual that uses the least amount of resources, land or time, has the absolute advantage

Output problems

• country/individual that can produce the most has the absolute advantage
• The country/individual that has the lowest opportunity cost has the comparative advantage in that product
• (in some format it deals with production)

Absolute advantage

• faster, more, more efficient

Comparative advantage

•  lower opportunity cost

Foreign Exchange Market

Foreign Exchange Market

Foreign exchange (FOREX): the buying and selling of currency

• The exchange rate (e) is determined in the foreign currency markets
• Simply put. The exchange rate is the price of a currency

Tips

• Always change the D line on one currency graph, the S like on the other currency's graph
• Move the lines of the two currency graphs in the same directions (right or left) and you will have the correct answer 
• If D on one graph increases, S on the other will also increase
• If D moves to the left, S will move to the left on the other graph

Changes in exchange rate

-Exchange rates (e) are a fiction of the supply and demand for currency

• An increase in the supply of a currency will make it cheaper to buy one unit of that currency
• A decrease in supply of a currency will make it more expensive to buy one unit of that currency
• An increase in demand for currency will make it more expensive to buy one unit of that currency
• A decrease in demand for a currency will make it cheaper to buy one unit of that currency

Appreciation: appreciation of a currency occurs when the exchange rate of that currency increases 

Hypothetical: 100 yen used to buy $1

Depreciation: depreciation of a currency occurs when the exchange rate of that currency decrease

• One hundred ten used to buy now dollar. Now 50 yen buys one dollar
• The dollar is weaker because it takes fewer yen to buy one dollar

Exchange rate determinants

• consumer tastes
• relative income
• relative price level
• speculation

Purchasing power parity: when the current rates are set by international markets changes will be based on the actual purchasing power of the currencies

• For ex: if US dollar to European euro is $1.50 to 1 than each S1.50 will buy one euro however if an item in the U.S. cost $1.50, and then cost more or less than one euro, the parity is lost, markets will adjust quickly in floating rates or pressure for change will occur in fixed rates 

Why do we exchange currencies?

1. To invest in other countries stocks and bonds
2. Sell exports and buy imports
3. To build factories or stores in other markets
4. To hold currencies in ban accounts for future imports, exports, or business loans
5. Tp speculate on currency values
6. To control excessive imbalances and the imbalance will come from the balance of payment

Phillips Curve

Phillips Curve

Short run
Time too short for wages to adjust to the price level

Workers may not be aware of changes in their real wages due to inflation and have adjusted their labor supply decisions and wage demands accordingly

Nominal wages: amount of money received per day per hour or per year

Sticky wages: nominal wage level is set according to an initial price level and it does not vary

Long run aggregate supply
Time long enough for wages to adjust to the price level
-flexible wage and price level
-both offset each other

Phillips curve: Represents relationship between unemployment and inflation
-the trade off between inflation and unemployment only occurs in the short run
-long run Phillips curve: occurs at the natural rate of unemployment , if the natural rate of unemployment change, the lspc change
▪️represented by a vertical line
▪️no trade off between unemployment and inflation in the long run this means the economy produces at. A full employment level
▪️lrpc will only shift if the LRAS curve shifts otherwise it is assumed to be stable
▪️major lrpc assumption is that more worker benefits create higher natural rates and fewer worker benefits creates lower natural rates

Short run Phillips curve
-there is an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment
-has a relevance to Okun's law
-since wages are sticky inflation changes on the srpc
-if inflation persists an expected rate of inflation rise then the entire srpc moves upward which causes stagflation
-if inflation expectations drop, due to new technology or economic growth then the srpc will move downward
-aggregate supply shocks can create both higher rates of inflation and higher rates of unemployment
-supply shocks: rapid and significant increase in resource cost

Misery index: a combination of unemployment and inflation in any given year
- single digit misery is good


The long run Phillips curve (lrpc)
-because the long run Phillips curve exists at the natural rate of unemployment (Un), structural changes in the economy that affect Un will also cause the lrpc to shift
-increases in Un will shift lrpc ➡️
-decreases in Un will shift lrpc ⬅️

Stagflation: period where we have high inflation and high unemployment occurring at the same time
-after Vietnam war
-baby boom
-civil rights movement
-women's movement


Disinflation: reduction in inflation rate from year to year

Deflation: it is a situation in which there is an actual drop in the price level

It is the belief that the as curve will determine levels of inflation, unemployment and economic growth

-to increase the economy the as curve should shift to the right which will always benefit the company first

Amount paid on the last dollar earned or on each additional dollar earned so by reducing the marginal tax rate, supply siders believe that you will encourage more people to work longer and forego leisure time for extra income

Support policies that promote GDP growth that arguing that the high marginal tax rate along with the current system of transfer payments, they provide disincentives to work, invest, innovate, and undertake entrepreneurial ventures

Reaganomics : lower marginal tax rate to get the us out of a recession ➡️Results in deficit

Laffer curve: It is a trade off between tax rates and government revenue
-it is used to support the supply side argument
3 criticisms of the laffer curve
1. Research suggest that the impact of tax rates on incentives to work, save, and invest are small
2. Tax cuts increase demand which can fuel inflation and causes demand to exceed supply
3. Where the economy is actually located on the curve is difficult to determine

Balance of Payments

 Balance of payments: measure of money inflows and outflows between the united stated and the rest of the world (ROW)
-inflows are referred to as credits
-outflows are referred to as debits
-balance of payments is divided into 3 accounts
1. Current account
2. Capital/financial account
3. Official reserves
Double entry bookkeeping: every transaction in the balance of payments is recorded twice in accordance with standard accounting practice
Ex: us manufacturer, john Deere, exports $50 million worth if farm equipment to Ireland
-$50 million worth of farm equipment or physical assets
-a debit of $50 million to the capital/financial account (+$50 million worth of euros or financial assets)

Balance of trade or net exports
-exports of goods/services-import of goods/services
-exports create a credit to the balance of payment
-imports create a debut to the balance of payments
Net foreign income
-income earned by us owned foreign assets - income paid to foreign held us assets
-ex. Interest payments on is owned Brazilian bonds - interest payments on German owner us treasury bonds
Net transfers (unilateral)
-foreign aid ->a debut to the current account
-ex: Mexican migrant workers send money to family in Mexico
Capital/financial account
-the balance of capital ownership
-includes the purchase of both real and financial assets
-direct investment in the United States is a credit to the capital account
-purchases of stocks and bonds by foreigners
-purchase of foreign financial assets represents a debit to the capital account
-ex. Warren buffet buys stock in petrochina
-purchase of domestic financial assets by foreigners represents a credit to the capital account
-United Arab emirates sovereign wealth find purchases a large stake in the NASDAQ
Relationship between current and capital account
-The current account and the capital account should zero each other out
-If the current account has a negative balance (deficit) then the capital account should then have a positive balance (surplus)
 
 Official reserves:

• The foreign currency holdings of the us federal reserve system
• when there is a balance of payments surplus the fed accumulated foreign currency and debits the balance of payments
• When there is a balance of payments deficit the fed depletes it's reserves of foreign currency and credits the balance of payments
• The official reserves zero out the balance of payments

Active v. Passive official reserves

• The United States is passive in it's use of official reserves. It does not seek to manipulate the dollar exchange rate
• The peoples republic of china is active in it's use of official reserves. It actively buys and sells dollars in order to maintain a steady exchange rate with the United States.

Formulas

Balance of trade:

• goods and services exports - goods and services imports
• (if imports > exports) trade deficit or trade surplus (if exports > imports)
• goods exports + good imports

Current account:

Balance of trade + net investment + net transfer

Capital account:

Foreign purchases of U.S. assets + U.S. purchases of assets abroad

Official reserves:

Current account + capital account

How to calculate goods and services:

Good imports + service imports

MONETARY POLICY

Video number 1

There are three types of money. The first one is commodity is the purpose that function as money. A representative is represent metals. Fiant is the money that must accept by transaction. There are three types of function of money. The first one is medium of exchange it means you exchange something. Store of value is when you put money away and you expected to still have value when you use it. The last one is the unit account with this we can said price indicate worth.

Video number 2
Money Market
Demand is down because price is high, so demand is low but the  price is high, basically they have an inverse relationship.SM is vertical does not vary on interest rate. Interest rate on the  y-axis. on the money graph x-axis is QM increase money supply is the right decrease is to the left.

Video number 3

Expansionary and contradictary is have a inverse relationship. Discount rate is the bank can borrow from the FED. In expand the money supply the Fed buy bonds. in contradictary the Feb sell bonds.

Video number 4

Interest rate on the y-axis. quantity of loanable fund on the axis. Dlf downward and Slf is upward. The slf is the amount of money people have in bank. The more people put money in the bank, the more loans bank will be available.

Video 5
Money creation create money by making loans. RR is the amount the bank need to keep. Multiplier is 1/RR. Multiplier deposit to add all the potential loans. Money creation have multiplier and multiple deposit expansion.

Video 6

Money market lonable fund and AD-AB graph. It's better to put them side by side. Money supply and loanable fund have a interest rate as their y-axis. Both DM and Dlf are going down

Loanable funds market:

 

• The market where savers and borrowers exchange funds at the real rate of interest.
• Demand for loanable funds or borrowing comes from households,firms,gov and the foreign sector. The demand for loan able funds is in fact the supply of bonds. 
• The supply of loan able funds or savings comes from households,firms,gov and the foreign sector. The supple of loan able funds is also the demand for bonds.

Changes in the demand for Loanable funds 

• Remember that demand for Loanable funds=borrowing 
•  More borrowing=more demand for Loanable funds (->)
• Less borrowing=less demand for Loanable funds (<-)

Changes in the supply of Loanable funds 

• Remember that supply of Loanable funds=saving 
• More saving=more supply of Loanable funds(->)
• Less savings=less supply of Loanable funds (<-)

Final thoughts on Loanable funds 

• Changes in saving and borrowing create change in loanable funds and therefore the r% changes
• change in the real interest rate will affect GDP

 

key principle

• A single bank can create money (through loans) by the amount of excess reserves
• Banking system as a while can create money by a multiple (deposition) money multiplier of the initial excess reserves.

Factors that weaken the effectiveness of deposit multiplier:

1. If banks fail to loan out all of its excess reserves.
2. If bank customers take their loans in cash rather than in their checking account deposits it creates a cash or currency drain.

MONEY MARKET

Inverse relationship between money, demand, and interest rates.

DM ; MD up    :  ir down

money demand shifter:

1. Change in price level
2. Change in income